Chapter - Review:

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• Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups of people worshipped their own Gods and Goddesses. As people were brought together through the growth of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to develop.
• The idea that all human beings are not equal at birth gained ground during this period.
• The idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from bondage through devotion or bhakti emerged.
• Gods and goddesses worshipped in different areas came to be identified with Shiva, Vishnu or Durga.
• The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of a new religious movement, led by Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu).
• They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
• The Nayanars and Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite poems of praise of the deities enshrined in the village they visited and set them to music.
• The Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many of the shrines.
• Shankara, a philosopher, of Kerala advocated Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the ultimate reality.
• Ramanuja of Tamil Nadu advocated that the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.
• Virashaivism movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi in Karnataka in the mid-12 century.
• They argued strongly for equality of all human beings, opposed Brahmanical ideas on caste and treatment of women.
• Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela focused on the bhakti of Vitthala (a form of Vishnu).
• Some of these belonged to lower castes. They rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth.
• A number of religious groups that emerged during this period criticized the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments.
• Among them were the Nathpanthis, Siddhcharas and Yogis.
• Islam propagated monotheism or submission to one God. ‘
• It also rejected idol worship. Muslim scholars developed a holy law called Shariat.
• The Sufis rejected the elaborate codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
• The sought unison with God, as a lover seeks his beloved with a disregard for the world.
• Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
• Sufism introduced many popular orders or silsilas of which the most widespread was the Shariat and Chisti Silsilas.
• The Chisti silsila was among the most influential orders. A long line of teachers included Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti of
• Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
• The period after the 13th century saw a new wave of bhakti movement in North India.
• This wave was led by scholars like Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak
• This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai. Mirabai was devoted to Lord Krishna.
• A unique feature of most of these saints is that their works were composed in regional languages and could be sung.
• Kabir ridiculed idol worship and believed in one formless Supreme God with devotion as the path of salvation.
• Guru Nanak emphasized on the importance of one God and nam-japna, kirti-kama and vand- chhakna.The number of
• Baba Guru Nanak’s followers increased through the 16th century under his successors.
• Shankara was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God.

Exercise - Question:

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Que: Match the following:

The Buddha                             namghar

Shankaradeva                         worship of Vishnu

Nizamuddin Auliya                 questioned socialdifferences

Nayanars                                Sufi saint

Alvars                                      worship of Shiva

Ans:

The Buddha	Questioned social diffrence
Shankardeva	namgar
Nizamuddin Auliya	Sufi sant
Nayanars	worship of shiva
Alvars	worship of vishnu

Que: Fill in the blanks:

(a) Shankara was an advocate of ————-.

(b) Ramanuja was influenced by the —————.

(c) ————, ———— and ———— wereadvocates of Virashaivism.

(d) ———————— was an important centre ofthe Bhakti tradition in Maharashtra.

Ans:

(a) Advita

(b) Vishtadvaita

(c) Basavanna, Allam, Prabhu, Akkamahadevi,

(d) Pandharpur.

Que: Describe the beliefs and practices of the Nathpanthis,Siddhas and Yogis.

Ans:

(i) They Criticised the ritual and other aspects of convential religion and the social order.       

(ii) They used simple and logical arguments to present their thoughts.           

(iii) They advocated renunciation of the world.   

Que: What were the major ideas expressed by Kabir? How did he express these?

Ans:

(i) Ha balived in a formless Supreme God and Preached that the only path to Salvation was through bhakti or devotion.                                         

(ii) He also ridiculed the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and the caste system.             

(iii) To express his ideas, he used a form of spoken.         

Que: What were the major beliefs and practices of the Sufis?

Ans:

(i) Sufi saints composed poems and prose litreature including anecdotes and fables.             

(ii) They belived that the heart can be trained to look at the world in a diffrent way.                 

(iii) The sufi saints held their assembiles in their khanqas or hospices.          

Que: Why do you think many teachers rejected prevalentreligious beliefs and practices?

Ans:

(i) The social order had many unequal social castes. The lower castes was opperesed by the upper casts.                                                   

(ii) They belived in the power of personal devotion.  

Que: What were the major teachings of Baba Guru Nanak?

Ans:

(i) He emphased the importance of the worship of one God.                       

(ii) He insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation. 

(iii) He directed to the importance of right belief and worship, honest living and helping others.   

Que: For either the Virashaivas or the saints of Maharashtra, discuss their attitude towards caste.

Ans: Attitude of the Virashaivas towards caste :

They believed in the equality of all human beings. They were against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women. They wished for a society where people of all backgrounds could live in harmony without any feelings of high and low, rich and poor.

Que: Why do you think ordinary people preserved the memory of Mirabai?

Ans: Mirabai was a Rajput princess married into the royal family of Mewar. But she had no interest in the worldly affair. She was an ardent devotee of Krishna and wanted to devote her time to the worship of her lord. She had no belief in princely status and other norms of high-class society. Her devotion to her deity was supreme. Hence, she left the royal palace and began to lend. Simple life with ordinary people.

Que: Find out whether in your neighbourhood there are any dargahs, gurudwaras or temples associated with saints of the Bhakti tradition in your neighbourhood. Visit any one of these and describe what you see and hear.

Ans: Students are suggested to do this exercise themselves.

Que: For any of the saint-poets whose compositions have been included in this chapter, find out more about their works, noting down other poems. Find out whether these are sung, how they are sung, and what the poets wrote about

Ans:  Mainly Guru Nanak. Read the chapter and write down.

Additional - Question:

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Que: What did the Puranic stories consist of? 

Ans: The Puranic stories consisted of local myths and legends

Que: Who were the Pulaiyar and the Panars?

Ans: They were considered untouchables.

Que: How many Alvars were there?

Ans: There were 12 Alvars.

Que: Name the two sets of compilations of Nayanar’s songs.

Ans: Tevaram and Tiruvacakam.

Que: Name the set of compilation of Alvars’ songs.

Ans: Divya Prabandham.

Que: What did Ramanuja propound?

Ans: He propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained distinct.

Que: What is abhang? 

Ans: It is a Marathi devotional hymn.

Que: Name any two saints of Maharashtra.

Ans: Namdev and Tukaram

Que: Who were Sufis?

Ans: Sufis were Muslim mystics.

Que: Name any two great Sufis of Central Asia.

Ans: Ghazzali and Rumi.

Que: What are namghars?         

Ans: They are houses of recitation and prayer, a practice that continues even today.

Que: What was known as dharmsal?

Ans: Baba Guru Nanak created a sacred place which was known as dharmsal. It is now known as Gurudwara.

Que: To whom did Baba Guru Nanak appoint as his successor?

Ans: Guru Nanak appointed Guru Angad, one of his followers, as his successor.

Que: What is Guru Granth Sahib?

Ans: Guru Granth Sahib is the holy scripture of the Sikhs.

Que: Why did the Mughal emperor Jahangir order the execution of Guru Aijan in 1606?

Ans: The Mughal emperor Jahangir looked upon the Sikh community as a potential threat and therefore he ordered the execution of Guru Aijan.

Que: What did the terms ‘nam’, ‘dan’ and ‘isnan’ mean? 

Ans: The terms nam, dan and isnan meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct.

Que: Who compiled the compositions of Baba Guru Nanak?

Ans: Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Baba Guru Nanak.

Que: Who were the Nayanars and Alvars? Write about them in brief.

Ans: The Nayanars and Alvars led religious movements in south India during the seventh to ninth centuries. The Nayanars were devotees of Shiva while the Alvars were the devotees of Vishnu. They came from all castes including those considered ‘untouchable’ like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They preaohe^gjgdent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation. They went from place to place composing beautiful poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages they visited and set them to music. There were 63 Nayanars who belonged to different caste backgrounds. There were 12 Alvars who came from equally divergent backgrounds.

Que: Who was Ramanuja? What are the main points of his preachings?

Ans: Ramanuja was a Bhakti saint. He was born in Tamil Nadu in the 11th century. He was deeply influenced by the Alvars.

The main points of his preachings are :

• Ramanuja taught people that the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu. Vishnu in His grace helps the devotee to attain the bliss of union with Him.
• He propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained distinct.

Que: What do you mean by Khanqahs? What purpose did it serve? 

Ans: Khanqahs were houses of rest for travellers especially one kept by a religious order. Sufi masters usually held their assemblies here. Devotees of all descriptions including members of the royalty and nobility, and ordinary people flocked to these Khanqahs. Here, they discussed spiritual matters, sought the blessings of the saints in solving their worldly problems or simply attended the music and dance sessions.

Que: “The songs are as much a creation of the saints as of generations of people who sang them.’ Explain.  

Ans: The works of the saints were composed in regional languages and could be sung. They became very popular and were handed down orally from one generation to another. Usually, the most deprived communities and women transmitted these songs. They even added their own experiences to them. Thus, the songs as we have them today are as much a creation of the saints as of generations of people who sang them. They have become a part of our living culture.

Que: Who was Kabir? How do we know about him?

Ans: Kabir probably lived in the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries. He was one of the most influential saints. He was brought up in a family of Muslim jalahas or weavers settled in or near the city of Benaras, now Varanasi. We have little reliable information about the life of Kabir. We come to know of his ideas from a vast collection of verses called sakhis and pads, which are said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers.

Que: Who were the followers of Baba Guru Nanak?

Ans: Baba Guru Nanak had a large number of followers. They belonged to a number of castes but traders, agriculturists, artisans and craftsmen predominated. Thus, the followers of Guru Nanak were all householders and adopted productive and useful occupations. They were expected to contribute to the general funds of the community of followers.

Que: Why was the Mughal emperor Jahangir hostile to the Sikh community? How did the Sikh movement gain momentum? 

Ans: By the beginning of the 17th century the town of Ramdaspur, Amritsar had developed around the central Gurudwara known as Harmandar Sahib, the Golden Temple. It was a virtually self-governing body and the modem historians refer to the early 17th-century Sikh community as ‘a state within a state’. This made the Mughal emperor Jahangir hostile to the Sikh community. He looked upon them as a potential threat and he ordered the execution of Guru Aijan in 1606.

It is from this time the Sikh movement began to gain momentum. It was a development that culminated, in the institution of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699.                         ’    

Que: Write in brief about the ideas of Shankara and Ramanuja.

Ans: Shankara. He was one of the most Influential philosophers of India. He was bom in Kerala in the eighth century. He was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God, the Ultimate Reality. He taught that Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless and without any attributes. He considered the world around us to be an illusion or maya, and preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman and attain salvation. Ramanuja.

He was bom in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh century and was deeply influenced by the Alvars. He preached that the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu. Vishnu in His grace helps the devotee to attain the bliss of union with Him. He propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita of qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained distinct

Que: Write a brief note on new religious developments in north India. 

Ans: During the thirteenth century a new wave of the Bhakti movement began in north India. This was an age when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of Bhakti, and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced one another. Ordinary people such as craftspersons, peasants, traders, etc. showed their interest in listening to these new saints. Kabir and Baba Gum Nanak did not approve orthodox religious.

Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these accessible to all. Tulsidas conceived of God in the form of Rama. His Ramacharitmanas is a unique creation, Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His compositions compiled in the Sursagara, Sursaravali and Sahitga Lahari, express his devotion. Shankaradeva of Assam emphasised devotion to Vishnu and composed poems and plays in Assamese. He began the practice of setting up namghars or houses of recitation and prayer. Saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai are worth-mentioning here.

Mirabai was a Rajput princess and was married into the royal family of Mewar in the 16th century. She became a disciple of Ravidas, an untouchable saint. She devoted her life to Lord Krishna. She composed a number of bhqjans expressing her intense devotion. A unique feature of most of the saints is that their works were composed in regional languages and could be sung. Therefore, they became very popular among the common mass.