Chapter - Review:

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• Monuments provide an insight into the technologies used for construction.
• Between the seventh and tenth centuries, architects started adding more rooms, doors and windows to buildings.
• Roofs, doors and windows were made by placing a horizontal beam across two vertical columns, a style of architecture called ‘trabeate’ or ‘corbelled’.
• Two technological and stylistic developments from the twelfth century are ‘arcuate architectural’ form and use of limestone mixed with stone chips that led to faster construction.
• Assimilation of Indian style with Persian style of architecture was prominent.
• Temples and mosques were beautifully constructed because they were places of worship and meant to demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion of the patron.
• The largest temples were all constructed by kings. The other, lesser deities in the temples were gods and goddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler.
• Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of God but Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the ‘Shadow of God’.
• As each new dynasty came to power, kings wanted to emphasise their moral right to be rulers.
• It was widely believed that the rule of a just king would be an age of plenty when the heavens would not withhold rain.
• Since kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to God and their power and wealth, they attacked and targeted these buildings when they attacked one another’s kingdoms.
• In the early 11th century, when the Chola king Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capital he filled it with prized statues seized from defeated rulers.
• Under the Mughals, architecture became more complex. Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan were personally interested in literature, art and architecture.
• Babur got gardens called Chahar Bagh (four gardens) built in Kabul. They were further constructed in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi by Akbar, Jehangir and Shah Jahan.
• Akbar’s architecture is visible in his father, Humayun’s tomb.
• Under Shah Jahan, Mughal architecture was fused together in a grand harmonious synthesis.
• The ceremonial halls of the public and private audience (diwan-i-Khas; diwan-i-am) were carefully planned.
• Shah Jahan adapted the Chahar Bagh technique in the layout of the Taj Mahal, the grandest architectural accomplishment of his reign.
• As construction activity increased between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, there was also a considerable sharing of ideas across regions.
• In Vijayanagar, for example, the elephant stables of the rulers were strongly influenced by the style of architecture found in the adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
• In Vrindavan, near Mathura, temples were constructed in architectural styles that were very similar to the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.
• The creation of large empires that brought different regions under their rule helped in this cross¬fertilisation of artistic forms and architectural styles.
• The Mughals adopted the ‘Bangla dome’ in their architecture.

Exercise - Question:

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Que: How is the “trabeate” principle of architecture different
from the “arcuate”?

Ans:

Trabeate	Arcuate
(i) It is also called coreblled techniqe.	(ii) The key stone was called "true" arch.
(ii) Example is the Quwat-al-islam mosque at Delhi.	(ii) Example is the Alai Darwaja at Delhi.
(iii) The arch was pointed from the middle.	(iii) The arch was rounded from the middle.

Que: What is a shikhara?

Ans: Shikara is a superstructure above the main shrine in which main delty is placed in the temples. The construction of Shikara was the most tedious and long lasting task in the temple construction.

Que: What is pietra-dura?

Ans: Pietra-dsura was an architectural techniqe mostly used in the buildings of shah Jahan. In this technique colured hard stones were placed in depressions carved into marblers or sandstones creating beautiful ornate patterns.

Que: What are the elements of a Mughal chahar bagh garden?
Ans:

(i) The garden placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quaters by artificial channel.                                                         

(ii) The four divisons were symentrical.

Que: How did a temple communicate the importance of a king?

Ans: 

(i) Temples were constructed to demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion of the parton king.                                                                       

(ii) Often the names of king and the main deity were similar. For example, Rajarajeshvara temple built by king Rajarajadeva. For the worship of hisgod, Rajarageshwaram.

Que: An inscription in Shah Jahan’s diwan-i khas in Delhistated: “If there isParadise on Earth, it is here, it ishere, it is here.” How was this image created?

Ans: The architectural design of shah jahan'sdiwan-i khas in Delhi Red fort, created the images of paradise on Earth.

Que: How did the Mughal court suggest that everyone – therich and the poor, thepowerful and the weak – receivedjustice equally from the emperor?

Ans:

(i) Behind emperors throne were a series of pietra dura inlays that depicted the legendary Greek God Orpheous playing the lute.                                   

(ii) It was belived that Orpheious music could calm fericos bests until they coexidet together peaceably.  

Que: What role did the Yamuna play in the layout of the new Mughal city at Shahjahanabad?

Ans:

(i) The yamuna played a significant role in the layers of the new Mughal city at Shahjahan.

(ii) The imperor palace commanded the river-front in the new city of Shahjahanabad in Delhi.                                                                           

(iii) Only specially favored nobles, such as Dara Shokoh were given access to the river.       

(iv) All the others had to construct their homes in the city away from the river Yamuna.       

Que: The rich and powerful construct large houses today.In what ways were the constructions of kings andtheir courtiers different in the past?

Ans:

(i) On the other hand, buildings had plan for the water system, tanks and gardens.

(ii) Buildings made by kings often had fusion of regional architecture such as Gujrati, Rajasthani and Bangal domes. 

Que: Look at Figure 4. How could that building beconstructed faster today?

Ans: By cranes and heavy machines.

Additional - Question:

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Que: Why was limestone cement used in the construction of large structures? 

Ans: Limestone cement was very high-quality cement, which, when mixed with stone chips hardened into concrete. This made the construction of large structures easier and faster.

Que: How did the Persian court chronicles describe the Sultan?

Ans: Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the ‘Shadow of God’.

Que: Name the ruler who won universal respect for constructing a large reservoir just – outside Delhi-i kuhna?

Ans: Sultan Iltutmish.

Que: What are the special features of Humayun’s tomb?

Ans: 

(a) It has a central towering dome.

(b) It has a tall gateway (pishtaq).

Que: What was maha mandapa?

Ans: It was the main hall in the temple where dances were performed.

Que: Name the temple built by king Rajarajadeva.

Ans: Rajarajeshvara temple.

Que: When was the tomb of Hanuman built?

Ans: It was built between 1562 and 1571.

Que: Who constructed the Kandariya Mahadeva temple?

Ans: King Dhangadeva of the Chandela dynasty constructed the Kandariya Mahadeva temple.

Que: Where was Shah Jahan’s capital in the early years of his reign?

Ans: It was at Agra

Que: What is the special feature of Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar’s capital?

Ans: Many of the buildings show the influence of the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.

Que: Name the king who invaded Sri Lanka? Whom did he defeat?

Ans: King Shrimara Shrivallabha. He defeated the king, Sena I.

Que: What was havellis?

Ans: They were large mansions of the merchants.

Que: How did kings win the praise of their subjects?

Ans: They won the praise of their subjects by buildings structures meant for a public activity such as temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravanserais, and bazaars.

Que: What type of structures were built by kings and their officers between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries? 

Ans: During this period kings and their officers built two kinds of structure

(A) Forts, palaces, garden residences and tombs

(B) Structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravanserais and bazaars.

Que: Write a short note on the Kandariya Mahadeva temple.

Ans: The Kandariya Mahadeva temple dedicated to Shiva was constructed in 999 by the king Dhangadeva of the Chandela dynasty. The temple had an ornamented gateway that led to an entrance. It had the main hall known as maha mandapa where dances were performed. The image of the chief deity was kept in the main Shrine known as garbhagriha. This was the place for ritual worship where only the king and his kith and kin gathered.

Que: Throw light on how the construction of the Rqjarqjeshvara temple was a very difficult task.       

Ans: The Raj raj Ishvara temple was built in the early 11th century. It had the tallest shikhara amongst temples of its time. Its construction was a very difficult task. There were no cranes in those days. The 90 tonne stone for the top of the shikhara was too heavy to lift manually. Hence, the architects built an inclined path to the top of the temple, placed the boulder on rollers and rolled it all the way to the top. The path started more than 4 km away so that it would not be too steep. This was dismantled after the temple was built.

Que: In what ways do you think the policies of Rajendra I and Mahmud of Ghazni were a product of their time? How were the actions of the two rulers different? 

Ans: King Rajendra I looted the temples of the defeated rulers and seized prized statues from them. He these statues in the decoration of the Shiva temple, that he built in his capital in the early 11th century.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was a contemporary of Rajendra I. He destroyed and looted the temples of defeated kings in order to win credit as a great hero of Islam. Thus, King Rajendra, I constructed a temple while Mahmud of Ghazni destroyed it. In this way, their actions were very much different.

Que: Write a brief note on the Chahar bagh built by the Mughal rulers.

Ans: The Mughal emperors were very much interested in literature, art, and architecture. Babur, in his autobiography, described his interest in planning and laying out formal gardens, placed within rectangular walled enclosures, and divided into four quarters by artificial channels. These gardens were called Chahar bagh, four gardens, because of their symmetrical division into quarters. Beginning with Akbar, some of the most beautiful Chahar baghs were constructed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi.

Que: When was Humayun’s tomb built? What are its special features?

Ans: Humayun’s tomb was, built between 1562 and 1571. Its main features are:

• The central towering dome and the tall gateway known as pishtaqbecame important aspects of Mughal architecture. This tomb architecture was first visible in Humayun’s tomb.
• The tomb was placed in the centre of a huge formal Chahar baghand built in the tradition known as ‘eight paradises’ or hasht bihisht—a central hall surrounded by eight rooms.
• The building was constructed with red sandstone, edge with white marble.

Que: Give an account of Shah Johan’s audience halls.  

Ans: Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque.
The pedestal on which his throne was placed was frequently described as the qibla, the direction faced by Muslims at prayer, since everybody faced that direction when court was in session. The idea of the king as a representative of God on earth was suggested by these architectural features.

The construction of Shah Jahan’s audience hall aimed to communicate that the king’s justice would treat the high and the low as equals creating a world where all could live together in harmony.

Que: Who were involved in the building of the Qutb Minor?

Ans: The Qutb Minar is five storeys high. The first floor was constructed by Qutbuddin Aybak and the rest by Iltutmish around 1229. Over the years it was damaged by lightning and earthquakes and repaired by Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad Tughluq, Firuz Shah Tughluq, and Ibrahim Lodi.

Que: How can you say that Mughal rulers adapted regional architectural styles in the construction of their buildings? Explain with examples.

Ans: Mughal rulers were skilled in adapting regional architectural styles in the construction of their buildings.

For example:

In Bengal, the local rulers had developed a roof that was designed to resemble a thatched hut. The Mughals liked this ‘Bangla dome’ and used it their architecture.

In Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri, many of the buildings show the influence of the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.

Que: Describe how Shah Jahan adapted the riverfront garden in the layout of the Teg Mahal.

Ans: The Taj Mahal is the grandest architectural accomplishment of Shah Jahan’s reign. He adapted the river-front garden in its layout. Here, the white marble mansoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river and the garden was to its south. Shah Jahan developed this architectural form as a means to control the access that nobles had to the river.

Que: What is the main feature of Shah Jahan’s new city of Shahjahanabad? 

Ans: Shah Jahan constructed a new city namely Shahjahanabad in Delhi. In this city, the imperial palace commanded the river-front. Only especially favoured nobles like his oldest son Dara Shukoh were given access to the river. All others had to construct their homes in the city away from the River Yamuna.

Que: Compare the reasons why temples were built and destroyed?               

Ans: Kings built temples to show their devotion to God and their power and wealth. King Rajarajeshvara built the Rajarajeshvara temple for the worship of his god, Rajarajeshvaram. Here, the names of the king and the god appear to be similar. The king took the god’s name because it was auspicious and he wanted to appear like a god. The largest temples were usually built by kings while the other, lesser deities in the temples were gods and goddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler.

The temple was a miniature model of the world ruled by the king and his allies. As they worshipped the deities together in the royal temples, it seemed as if they brought the just rule of the gods on earth. Kings built temples but when they attacked one another’s kingdoms they often targeted these buildings. In the early 9th century when the Pandyan King Shrimara Shrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka and defeated King Sena. he seized all the valuables such as the statue of the Buddha made entirely of gold and other golden images from various monasteries. King Sena II took revenge on this.

He invaded Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas in order to restore the gold statue of the Buddha. In the same way when in the early 11th century the Chola King Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capital. He filled it with prized statues seized from defeated rulers. Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni not only seized the valuables from the temples but . also destroyed them. He did it in order to win credit as a great hero of Islam Thus, rulers displayed their political might and military success by attacking and looting the places of worship of defeated rulers.