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The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation

Chapter 6. The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation

This chapter introduces the earliest civilisation of the Indian Subcontinent, its cities, achievements, way of life, agriculture, water management, crafts, trade and the reasons behind its eventual decline.

Chapter Review

Introduction

• Civilisation represents an advanced stage of human society.
• Human groups gradually moved towards civilisation after settling down and practising agriculture.
• The development of construction, metallurgy and transport helped human societies progress.
• A civilisation generally requires some form of government and administration.
• Urbanism, including town-planning and the management of cities, is an important feature of civilisation.
• Water management and drainage systems are important features of urban civilisation.
• A variety of crafts and specialised occupations develop in a civilisation.
• Trade allows people to exchange goods within their region and with distant regions.
• Some form of writing helps people keep records and communicate.
• Cultural ideas are expressed through art, architecture, literature, oral traditions and social customs.
• Productive agriculture is necessary to provide food for both villages and cities.
• Civilisations developed at different times in different parts of the world.
• Mesopotamian civilisation began about 6,000 years ago.
• Ancient Egyptian civilisation developed a few centuries after Mesopotamia.
• The story of the earliest Indian civilisation begins in the northwest region of the Indian Subcontinent.
• The earliest civilisation discussed in this chapter is known by several names.
• It is called the Indus Civilisation, Harappan Civilisation and Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation.
• The civilisation existed approximately from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
• Its inhabitants are generally called Harappans.
• The civilisation is one of the oldest civilisations in the world.
• Villages gradually grew into towns and towns developed into cities.
• The Harappans developed carefully planned cities.
• They constructed wide streets and organised settlements.
• They developed sophisticated systems for managing water.
• They built drainage systems to carry away wastewater.
• They constructed wells, reservoirs and other water-storage structures.
• They practised productive agriculture and grew a variety of crops.
• They domesticated animals and also practised fishing.
• They developed specialised crafts and worked with materials such as copper, bronze, stone and shells.
• They produced ornaments, tools, pottery and other useful objects.
• They were involved in extensive internal and external trade.
• They used land routes, rivers and the sea for transporting goods.
• Lothal provides evidence of early intensive maritime activity in India.
• Harappan seals were probably connected with trade activities.
• The Harappans developed cultural and symbolic objects.
• They made games, toys and objects for daily use.
• Some Harappan traditions and technologies continued even after the cities disappeared.
• The civilisation eventually declined and many people returned to rural settlements.
• The decline was probably connected with climatic and environmental changes.

What Is a Civilisation?

• A civilisation is an advanced stage of human society.
• A civilisation generally has some form of government and administration.
• Urbanism includes town-planning, development of cities and their management.
• Water management and drainage are important parts of urbanism.
• A civilisation has a variety of crafts and specialised occupations.
• It uses raw materials to produce finished goods.
• Trade takes place within the region and with distant regions.
• Some form of writing is used for records and communication.
• Cultural ideas are expressed through art, architecture, literature and social customs.
• Productive agriculture provides food for both villages and cities.

Important Definitions

Term	Definition
Civilisation	An advanced stage of human society with organised government, cities, crafts, trade, communication, culture and productive agriculture.
Metallurgy	The techniques of extracting, purifying and combining metals and the study of their properties.
Urbanism	The development, planning and management of towns and cities.
Tributary	A river that flows into a larger river or lake.
Fortification	A massive wall surrounding a settlement or city, generally built for protection.
Elite	The higher layers of society, such as rulers, officials, administrators and often priests.
Reservoir	A large natural or artificial place where water is stored.
Pulses	A category of crops that includes beans, peas and lentils.
Dockyard	A structure used to receive and send boats for the transportation of goods.
Harappans	The people who inhabited the Harappan or Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation.

From Village to City

• The plains of Punjab and Sindh were fertile because they were watered by the Indus River and its tributaries.
• Fertile land encouraged the growth of agriculture.
• The Sarasvatī River once flowed through parts of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• From about 3500 BCE, villages began developing into towns.
• With increasing trade and exchange, towns developed further into cities.
• This urban transition occurred around 2600 BCE.
• Archaeologists have given this civilisation several names.
• These include Indus, Harappan, Indus-Sarasvatī and Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation.
• The term First Urbanisation of India is also used for this development.

Important Names of the Civilisation

• Indus Civilisation
• Harappan Civilisation
• Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation
• Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation

All these names refer to the same ancient civilisation discussed in this chapter.

Why Is It Called Harappan Civilisation?

• The city of Harappa was the first site of this civilisation to be excavated.
• Harappa is located in present-day Punjab, Pakistan.
• Its excavation took place more than a century ago.
• Therefore, the inhabitants of this civilisation are called Harappans.

The Sarasvatī River

• The Sarasvatī basin contains many archaeological sites.
• The river is today associated with the Ghaggar in India and Hakra in Pakistan.
• The river is therefore also referred to as the Ghaggar-Hakra River.
• Today, it is a seasonal river and flows mainly during the rainy season.
• The Sarasvatī River is first mentioned in the Ṛig Veda.
• In the Ṛig Veda, Sarasvatī is described both as a goddess and as a river.
• Later texts describe the river as drying up and eventually disappearing.

Important Harappan Cities and Sites

Harappan City / Site	Modern State / Region
Dholavira	Gujarat
Harappa	Punjab
Kalibangan	Rajasthan
Mohenjo-daro	Sindh
Rakhigarhi	Haryana
Ganweriwala	Cholistan Desert
Lothal	Gujarat
Farmana	Haryana
Bhirrana	Haryana
Banawali	Haryana

Town-Planning

• Harappan cities were built according to precise plans.
• They had wide streets.
• Many streets were oriented towards the cardinal directions.
• Many cities were surrounded by fortifications.
• Most cities had an upper town and a lower town.
• The upper town probably housed the local elite.
• The lower town was generally occupied by common people.
• Some large buildings were used for collective purposes.
• Warehouses were used to store goods meant for transportation.
• Houses of different sizes were built along streets and smaller lanes.
• The quality of construction was generally similar in both small and large houses.
• Most buildings were made of bricks.
• Dholavira was different from many other cities because it had three distinct zones.
• In Dholavira, the foundations of most buildings were made with stones.

The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro

• The Great Bath is a famous structure at Mohenjo-daro.
• It was a relatively small but elaborate tank.
• It measured about 12 × 7 metres.
• Waterproofing materials such as natural bitumen were used.
• The tank was surrounded by small rooms.
• One of the rooms contained a well.
• A drain allowed the tank to be emptied and refilled with fresh water.
• Its exact purpose is still debated by archaeologists.
• Possible interpretations include a bath for the royal family or a tank used for religious rituals.

Water Management

• The Harappans gave great importance to water management and cleanliness.
• Many houses had separate bathing areas.
• Household bathing areas were connected to larger drainage networks.
• Drains generally ran below the streets.
• The drains carried wastewater away from houses and settlements.
• Mohenjo-daro had hundreds of brick-built wells.
• Other settlements obtained water from ponds and nearby streams.
• Some settlements used large man-made reservoirs.
• Dholavira had at least six large reservoirs.
• Some reservoirs were built with stones while others were cut into the rock.
• Many reservoirs were connected through underground drains.
• The system helped in water harvesting and distribution.
• The Harappan water-management system reflects advanced planning and organisation.

What Did the Harappans Eat?

• Many Harappan settlements were built near rivers.
• Rivers provided easy access to water.
• Rivers also enriched the soil and supported agriculture.
• Harappans grew barley and wheat.
• They also grew some millets.
• Rice was sometimes cultivated.
• They grew pulses and a variety of vegetables.
• They were the first in Eurasia to grow cotton.
• Cotton was used to make clothes.
• They made farming tools including the plough.
• They domesticated animals for meat consumption.
• They also fished in rivers and the sea.
• Animal and fish bones found during excavations provide evidence of their diet.
• Scientific examination of cooking pots has revealed remains of dairy products.
• Remains of turmeric, ginger and banana have also been found.
• The Harappan diet was therefore quite diverse.

Agriculture and Villages

• Intensive agricultural activity was managed by hundreds of small rural settlements.
• Cities depended on agricultural produce from surrounding villages.
• Regular supply of food from villages was necessary for urban life.
• Agriculture provided the foundation for the growth and survival of cities.

A Brisk Trade

• The Harappans were active traders.
• Trade took place within their own civilisation.
• They also traded with other civilisations and cultures.
• They exported ornaments and timber.
• They probably exported some everyday objects, gold and cotton.
• Some food items may also have been traded.
• Carnelian beads were among their important ornaments.
• Carnelian is a reddish semi-precious stone found mainly in Gujarat.
• Harappan craftspeople developed specialised techniques for drilling carnelian beads.
• They also worked with conch shells to make bangles.
• Copper was probably among the materials they imported.

Copper and Bronze

• The Harappans mastered the working of copper.
• Copper is a relatively soft metal.
• Adding tin to copper produces bronze.
• Bronze is harder than copper.
• The Harappans used bronze to make tools.
• They also made pots, pans and figurines from bronze.

Transport and Maritime Trade

• The Harappans used land routes for trade.
• They also used rivers to transport goods.
• They used the sea for distant destinations.
• This represents the first intensive maritime activity in India.
• Several Harappan settlements were located in coastal regions of Gujarat and Sindh.
• Lothal had a huge basin measuring about 217 metres in length and 36 metres in width.
• The basin is believed to have been a dockyard.
• A dockyard was used for receiving and sending boats for transportation of goods.

Harappan Seals

• Thousands of small seals have been excavated from Harappan settlements.
• Seals were generally made of steatite.
• Steatite is a soft stone that becomes harder when heated.
• Most seals were only a few centimetres in size.
• They commonly depicted animal figures.
• Seals also contained signs belonging to a writing system.
• The Harappan writing system has not yet been fully understood.
• The symbolic meaning of the animal figures is also uncertain.
• However, the seals are certainly connected in some way with trade activities.

Objects of Daily Use

• Archaeologists have discovered many objects used in everyday Harappan life.
• These include bronze mirrors.
• Terracotta pots were also used.
• Stone weights have been discovered.
• Bronze chisels were also used.
• Harappans designed games and toys for both adults and children.
• Gamesboards and terracotta whistles have been found.

Cultural and Symbolic Objects

• Harappan sites have yielded many cultural and symbolic objects.
• A figure often called the Priest King has been discovered, although its identity is uncertain.
• Some seals contain the swastika symbol.
• The Pashupati Seal depicts a three-faced figure surrounded by powerful animals.
• The famous Dancing Girl is a bronze figurine from Mohenjo-daro.
• A terracotta figurine showing a person in a namaste posture has also been found.
• A design on a Lothal pot appears to represent the story of the thirsty crow.
• These objects provide clues about Harappan culture and daily life.

Continuity of Harappan Culture

• Many objects found in Harappan sites have similarities with objects and practices known today.
• Bangles worn over an entire arm are seen in some parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan even today.
• Some ornaments, gestures and everyday objects continue to feel familiar in the 21st century.
• This suggests that some cultural traditions may have continued for thousands of years.

The End or a New Beginning?

• Around 1900 BCE, the Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation began to decline.
• Harappan cities were gradually abandoned.
• People who remained adopted a more rural lifestyle.
• Harappans scattered into hundreds or thousands of small rural settlements.
• The earlier form of government or administration appears to have disappeared.
• Earlier theories suggested that warfare or invasions destroyed the cities.
• However, there is no clear archaeological evidence of warfare or invasion.
• The Harappans do not appear to have maintained a large army or many weapons of war.
• The civilisation appears to have been relatively peaceful.

Causes of the Decline

• Archaeologists have proposed several possible causes for the decline.
• A major climatic change began around 2200 BCE.
• The climate became drier and rainfall decreased.
• Reduced rainfall made agriculture more difficult.
• Reduced agricultural production may have decreased the food supply reaching cities.
• The Sarasvatī River dried up in its central basin.
• Cities such as Kalibangan and Banawali were abandoned after changes in the river system.
• There may have been other factors as well.
• The decline shows the importance of climate and environment for human well-being.

After the Decline

• The disappearance of Harappan cities did not mean the complete disappearance of Harappan culture.
• Much of Harappan culture survived.
• Many Harappan technologies continued into the next phase of Indian civilisation.
• People adapted to changing environmental conditions.
• The population increasingly returned to rural settlements.

Important Dates

Time	Event
About 3500 BCE	Villages began developing into towns in the region.
About 2600 BCE	Urban transition and development of major Harappan cities.
About 2600–1900 BCE	Period of the Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation.
About 2200 BCE	Major climatic change began, bringing reduced rainfall and a drier phase.
About 1900 BCE	Harappan cities began to decline and were gradually abandoned.

Important Differences

Indus Civilisation	Harappan Civilisation
Name based on the Indus region.	Name based on Harappa, the first excavated site.
Highlights the geographical region.	Highlights the archaeological discovery at Harappa.
Also called Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation.	Its inhabitants are called Harappans.

Quick Revision

• ✔ Civilisation is an advanced stage of human society.
• ✔ Government, urbanism, crafts, trade, writing, culture and productive agriculture are important characteristics of civilisation.
• ✔ The earliest Indian civilisation discussed in this chapter is the Indus-Sarasvatī or Harappan Civilisation.
• ✔ It flourished approximately from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
• ✔ Harappans developed planned cities.
• ✔ Harappan cities had wide streets and organised layouts.
• ✔ Many cities had fortifications and upper and lower towns.
• ✔ Dholavira had three distinct zones.
• ✔ Mohenjo-daro is famous for its Great Bath.
• ✔ Harappans developed advanced drainage systems.
• ✔ Dholavira had a sophisticated reservoir system.
• ✔ Harappans cultivated wheat, barley, millets, rice, pulses and vegetables.
• ✔ They were the first in Eurasia to grow cotton.
• ✔ They domesticated animals and practised fishing.
• ✔ Harappans were active traders.
• ✔ They traded by land, rivers and sea.
• ✔ Lothal provides evidence of maritime activity and a possible dockyard.
• ✔ Harappans worked with copper and bronze.
• ✔ Carnelian beads and shell bangles show their specialised craftsmanship.
• ✔ Harappan seals were generally made of steatite.
• ✔ The Harappan writing system remains undeciphered.
• ✔ Games, toys, ornaments and cultural objects provide clues about Harappan life.
• ✔ Harappan cities declined around 1900 BCE.
• ✔ Climate change, reduced rainfall and drying of the Sarasvatī were important factors.
• ✔ Harappan culture and technology continued even after the cities disappeared.

Exam Booster

• ⭐ Learn the definition and characteristics of a civilisation.
• ⭐ Remember the period 2600–1900 BCE of the Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation.
• ⭐ Learn why the civilisation is called Harappan.
• ⭐ Remember the major Harappan sites and their modern locations.
• ⭐ Understand the main features of Harappan town-planning.
• ⭐ Learn the importance of the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro.
• ⭐ Remember the sophisticated water-management system of Dholavira.
• ⭐ Learn the major crops and food habits of the Harappans.
• ⭐ Remember that Harappans were skilled in crafts, metallurgy and trade.
• ⭐ Learn the importance of Lothal's dockyard.
• ⭐ Remember the importance of Harappan seals and their undeciphered writing system.
• ⭐ Know the important cultural objects such as the Dancing Girl and Pashupati Seal.
• ⭐ Understand that warfare or invasion is not supported as the main cause of decline by current evidence in the chapter.
• ⭐ Remember climate change, reduced rainfall and the drying of the Sarasvatī as important factors in the decline.
• ⭐ Understand that the decline of cities did not mean the complete disappearance of Harappan culture.

The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation

Chapter 6. The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation – Notes 1

1. What Is a Civilisation?

A civilisation is an advanced stage of human society. It develops when human communities become organised and acquire several important features.

• Government and Administration – A system to manage a complex society and its activities.
• Urbanism – Town-planning, growth of cities and their management.
• Water Management – Proper systems for collecting, storing and distributing water.
• Drainage System – A system for carrying wastewater away from houses and settlements.
• Variety of Crafts – Production of finished goods such as ornaments and tools from raw materials.
• Trade – Exchange of goods within a region as well as with distant regions.
• Writing – A system used for keeping records and communication.
• Cultural Ideas – Ideas about life and the world expressed through art, architecture, literature, oral traditions and social customs.
• Productive Agriculture – Agriculture capable of producing enough food for villages as well as cities.

2. Main Characteristics of a Civilisation

Characteristic	Meaning
Government and Administration	Managing a complex society and its different activities.
Urbanism	Planning, development and management of towns and cities.
Water Management	Systems for managing and storing water.
Drainage	Removing wastewater from houses and streets.
Crafts	Making finished products from raw materials.
Trade	Exchange of goods within and outside the region.
Writing	Keeping records and communicating information.
Culture	Ideas and practices expressed through art, architecture, literature and customs.
Agriculture	Production of enough food for villages and cities.

3. Beginning of Civilisation

• Civilisation began at different times in different parts of the world.
• In Mesopotamia, modern Iraq and Syria, civilisation began about 6,000 years ago.
• Ancient Egyptian civilisation developed a few centuries after Mesopotamia.
• The Indian story of civilisation begins in the northwest region of the Indian Subcontinent.

4. The Earliest Indian Civilisation

• The earliest civilisation discussed in this chapter is known by several names.
• It is called the Indus Civilisation.
• It is also called the Harappan Civilisation.
• Another name is the Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation.
• The term Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation is also used.
• The civilisation flourished approximately from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.
• Its inhabitants are commonly called Harappans.
• It is one of the oldest civilisations in the world.

5. From Village to City

• The plains of Punjab and Sindh were watered by the Indus River and its tributaries.
• The availability of water made these plains fertile.
• Fertile land favoured the development of agriculture.
• The Sarasvatī River also flowed through parts of the region thousands of years ago.
• The Sarasvatī flowed from the Himalayan foothills through Haryana, Punjab, parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• From about 3500 BCE, villages began growing into towns.
• Increasing trade and other exchanges helped towns grow into cities.
• This urban transition happened around 2600 BCE.
• This development is also called the First Urbanisation of India.

6. Why Are They Called Harappans?

• The inhabitants of the civilisation are called Harappans.
• The name comes from the city of Harappa.
• Harappa is located in present-day Punjab, Pakistan.
• Harappa was the first city of this civilisation to be excavated.
• Its excavation took place more than a century ago.
• Therefore, archaeologists use the term Harappan Civilisation.

7. The Sarasvatī River

• The Sarasvatī basin contains many archaeological sites.
• The river is associated today with the Ghaggar-Hakra river system.
• Today, the river is mainly seasonal and flows during the rainy season.
• The Sarasvatī River is first mentioned in the Ṛig Veda.
• In the Ṛig Veda, Sarasvatī is described both as a goddess and as a river.
• Later texts describe the river as drying up and eventually disappearing.
• The Sarasvatī basin contains many important Harappan settlements.

8. Important Harappan Settlements

Site	Present Location
Harappa	Punjab, Pakistan
Mohenjo-daro	Sindh, Pakistan
Rakhigarhi	Haryana
Ganweriwala	Cholistan Desert, Pakistan
Farmana	Haryana
Kalibangan	Rajasthan
Bhirrana	Haryana
Banawali	Haryana
Dholavira	Gujarat
Lothal	Gujarat

9. Town-Planning of Harappan Cities

• Large Harappan cities were built according to precise plans.
• The cities had wide streets.
• Many streets were oriented towards the cardinal directions.
• Most cities seem to have been surrounded by fortifications.
• Many cities had two distinct parts.
• The upper town was probably occupied by the local elite.
• The lower town was generally occupied by common people.
• Some large buildings were used for collective purposes.
• Warehouses were used for storing goods meant for transportation.
• Houses of different sizes were built along streets and smaller lanes.
• The quality of construction was generally similar in small and large houses.
• Buildings were generally made of bricks.

10. Fortification

Fortification is a massive wall surrounding a settlement or city, generally built for protective purposes.

• Most major Harappan cities appear to have had fortifications.
• Fortifications helped define and protect important areas of the settlement.

11. Upper Town and Lower Town

Upper Town	Lower Town
Generally occupied by the local elite.	Generally occupied by common people.
One of the distinct parts of many Harappan cities.	The other major part of many Harappan cities.
Often associated with important structures.	Contained houses and residential areas.

12. Elite

Elite refers to the higher layers of society, such as rulers, officials, administrators and often priests.

13. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro

• The Great Bath is one of the famous structures of Mohenjo-daro.
• It was a small but elaborate tank.
• It measured about 12 × 7 metres.
• The tank was carefully constructed using bricks.
• Natural bitumen was used as a waterproofing material.
• The tank was surrounded by small rooms.
• One of the rooms contained a well.
• A drain was provided to empty the tank.
• The tank could be refilled with fresh water.
• Its exact purpose is still debated by archaeologists.

14. Possible Uses of the Great Bath

• It may have been a bath for the royal family.
• It may have been used for religious rituals.
• The interpretation of it as a public bath has been ruled out because many houses in Mohenjo-daro had individual bathrooms.
• There is no inscription, text or traveller's account that directly explains its purpose.

15. Water Management

• The Harappans gave great importance to water management and cleanliness.
• Many houses had separate areas for bathing.
• These bathing areas were connected to larger drainage networks.
• Drains generally ran below the streets.
• The drains carried wastewater away from houses.
• Mohenjo-daro had hundreds of brick-built wells.
• Other settlements obtained water from ponds and nearby streams.
• Some settlements used human-made reservoirs.
• Dholavira had at least six large reservoirs.
• Some reservoirs were built with stones.
• Some reservoirs were cut into the rock.
• Many reservoirs were connected through underground drains.
• These systems helped in efficient water harvesting and distribution.

16. Drainage System

• Drainage was an important feature of Harappan urban planning.
• Household bathing areas were connected to drainage networks.
• Many drains were constructed below streets.
• Wastewater was carried away from residential areas.
• The drainage system reflects the importance given to cleanliness and urban management.

17. Dholavira and Water Storage

• Dholavira is located in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
• It had at least six large reservoirs.
• Reservoirs were constructed using stones or were cut into the rock.
• Many reservoirs were connected through underground drains.
• The system supported water harvesting and distribution.

18. Important Terms – Quick Definitions

Term	Meaning
Civilisation	An advanced stage of human society.
Metallurgy	Techniques of extracting, purifying and combining metals and the study of their properties.
Urbanism	Town-planning, growth of cities and their management.
Tributary	A river that flows into a larger river or lake.
Fortification	A massive protective wall surrounding a settlement or city.
Elite	The higher layers of society, such as rulers, officials and administrators.
Reservoir	A large natural or artificial place where water is stored.

19. Important Differences

Indus Civilisation vs Harappan Civilisation

Indus Civilisation	Harappan Civilisation
The name refers to the Indus region.	The name comes from Harappa.
It is one of the names used for the same civilisation.	It is the archaeological name commonly used for the civilisation.
It does not fully describe the civilisation's geographical extent.	Harappan is used for the civilisation's people and archaeological culture.

Town vs City

Town	City
A larger settlement than a village.	A more developed and organised urban settlement.
Harappan villages gradually developed into towns.	Harappan towns later developed into cities.
Trade and other exchanges helped towns grow.	Cities required organised planning and management.

Water Management vs Drainage

Water Management	Drainage
Deals with collecting, storing and distributing water.	Deals mainly with carrying wastewater away.
Includes wells, ponds and reservoirs.	Includes drains connected to houses and streets.
Dholavira is famous for its reservoirs.	Mohenjo-daro and other settlements had organised drainage systems.

20. Important Facts to Remember

• 2600–1900 BCE – Approximate period of the Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation.
• 3500 BCE – Villages began developing into towns in the region.
• 2600 BCE – Urban transition towards cities.
• Harappa – First excavated city of this civilisation.
• Harappans – People of the Harappan Civilisation.
• Ṛig Veda – First text to mention the Sarasvatī River.
• Mohenjo-daro – Famous for the Great Bath.
• Dholavira – Famous for its sophisticated water-management system.
• Lothal – An important Harappan settlement in Gujarat.
• Fortification – Protective wall around a settlement or city.
• Urbanism – Planning and management of towns and cities.
• Reservoir – A place where water is stored.

21. Exam Focus

• ⭐ Define civilisation and explain its main characteristics.
• ⭐ Learn the different names of the earliest Indian civilisation.
• ⭐ Remember the period 2600–1900 BCE.
• ⭐ Explain how villages developed into towns and cities.
• ⭐ Learn why the people are called Harappans.
• ⭐ Remember the importance of the Sarasvatī River.
• ⭐ Learn the main features of Harappan town-planning.
• ⭐ Remember the difference between the upper town and lower town.
• ⭐ Learn the important facts about the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro.
• ⭐ Understand the Harappan drainage and water-management systems.
• ⭐ Remember the importance of Dholavira's reservoirs.
• ⭐ Learn the meanings of important terms such as urbanism, fortification, elite, tributary and reservoir.

The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation

Chapter 6. The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation

Section A – Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. The Harappan Civilisation flourished approximately during which period?

   1. 5000–4000 BCE
   2. 2600–1900 BCE
   3. 1500–1000 BCE
   4. 1000–500 BCE

2. The people of the Harappan Civilisation are commonly known as:

   1. Vedic people
   2. Harappans
   3. Magadhans
   4. Guptas

3. Which city was the first city of the civilisation to be excavated?

   1. Dholavira
   2. Lothal
   3. Harappa
   4. Kalibangan

4. Which river is mentioned in the Ṛig Veda?

   1. Narmada
   2. Sarasvatī
   3. Godavari
   4. Kaveri

5. Which Harappan site is famous for its sophisticated water-management system?

   1. Dholavira
   2. Harappa
   3. Farmana
   4. Banawali

6. The Great Bath is located at:

   1. Harappa
   2. Mohenjo-daro
   3. Lothal
   4. Dholavira

7. Which metal is added to copper to produce bronze?

   1. Iron
   2. Gold
   3. Tin
   4. Silver

8. Which Harappan settlement is associated with a huge basin believed to be a dockyard?

   1. Lothal
   2. Kalibangan
   3. Rakhigarhi
   4. Harappa

9. Harappan seals were generally made of:

   1. Iron
   2. Steatite
   3. Wood
   4. Gold

10. Which famous Harappan object is a bronze figurine?

    1. Great Bath
    2. Dancing Girl
    3. Pashupati Seal
    4. Gamesboard

11. Which of the following was an important Harappan craft product?

    1. Carnelian beads
    2. Paper books
    3. Silk carpets
    4. Steel weapons

12. The Harappan writing system is:

    1. Fully understood
    2. Partially translated
    3. Not yet understood
    4. Written only in Sanskrit

13. Which crop was first grown in Eurasia by the Harappans?

    1. Tea
    2. Cotton
    3. Coffee
    4. Sugarcane

14. Which of the following is NOT considered a clear cause of the decline of the Harappan cities?

    1. Reduced rainfall
    2. Drier climate
    3. Drying of the Sarasvatī River
    4. A large-scale foreign invasion

15. The Harappan cities began to decline around:

    1. 3000 BCE
    2. 2500 BCE
    3. 1900 BCE
    4. 1000 BCE

Answer Key – MCQs

1. (b)    2. (b)    3. (c)    4. (b)    5. (a)    6. (b)    7. (c)    8. (a)    9. (b)    10. (b)    11. (a)    12. (c)    13. (b)    14. (d)    15. (c)

Section B – Fill in the Blanks

1. The Harappan Civilisation flourished approximately from ________ BCE to ________ BCE.
2. The people of the civilisation are commonly called ________.
3. The Great Bath is located at ________.
4. The Harappan writing system has not yet been fully ________.
5. Bronze is produced by adding ________ to copper.
6. Harappan seals were generally made of ________.
7. ________ was an important Harappan settlement in Gujarat associated with maritime trade.
8. The famous bronze figurine known as the ________ was found at Mohenjo-daro.

Section C – True or False

1. The Harappans were skilled farmers and craftspeople.
2. The Harappans did not participate in long-distance trade.
3. Dholavira had a sophisticated system of water management.
4. The Great Bath was found at Lothal.
5. Harappans used copper and bronze.
6. The Harappan script has been completely deciphered.
7. Lothal provides evidence of maritime activity.
8. The Harappan cities declined around 1900 BCE.

Section D – Very Short Answer Questions

1. What is meant by civilisation?
2. What is urbanism?
3. Why are the people of the civilisation called Harappans?
4. Name any two important Harappan cities.
5. What is fortification?
6. What is a reservoir?
7. What is bronze?
8. What is carnelian?
9. What were Harappan seals generally made of?
10. Where was the Dancing Girl found?

Section E – Short Answer Questions

1. What were the main characteristics of a civilisation?
2. How did villages develop into towns and cities in the Harappan region?
3. Describe the main features of Harappan town-planning.
4. Why was water management important for the Harappans?
5. Describe the drainage system of the Harappan cities.
6. What do the Great Bath and other water-management structures tell us about Harappan society?
7. What food crops were cultivated by the Harappans?
8. Describe the importance of trade in the Harappan Civilisation.
9. Why were carnelian beads important in Harappan trade and craft production?
10. What evidence shows that the Harappans had maritime trade?
11. What was the importance of Lothal?
12. What were Harappan seals and what may have been their purpose?

Section F – Long Answer Questions

1. Explain the major features of the Harappan Civilisation under the following headings:

   • Town-planning
   • Water management
   • Drainage
   • Agriculture
   • Crafts
   • Trade

2. Describe the food habits and agricultural practices of the Harappans. Mention the major crops cultivated by them.

3. Explain the trade and maritime activities of the Harappans. What evidence do Lothal and Harappan artefacts provide?

4. Describe the different types of objects discovered from Harappan sites and explain what they tell us about Harappan life and culture.

5. What happened to the Harappan cities around 1900 BCE? Explain the major factors that may have contributed to their decline.

6. “The decline of Harappan cities did not mean the complete disappearance of Harappan culture.” Explain.

Section G – Answer in Detail

1. Compare the Upper Town and Lower Town of Harappan cities.

2. Differentiate between water management and drainage in the Harappan Civilisation.

3. Differentiate between copper and bronze.

4. Explain why warfare or invasion is not considered a clear cause of the decline of the Harappan Civilisation.

5. How did climate change and the drying of the Sarasvatī River affect Harappan settlements?

Section H – Match the Following

Column A	Column B
1. Harappa	a. Bronze figurine
2. Mohenjo-daro	b. Water reservoirs
3. Dholavira	c. First excavated city
4. Lothal	d. Great Bath
5. Dancing Girl	e. Dockyard

Section I – Source / Thinking-Based Questions

1. A city has wide streets, planned houses, covered drains, wells and reservoirs.

   (a) What does this tell us about the people who lived there?

   (b) Which civilisation is famous for such urban planning?

   (c) Why would drainage and water storage be important in such a city?

2. Archaeologists find carnelian beads, shell bangles and objects made from copper at a Harappan settlement.

   (a) What do these objects tell us about Harappan crafts?

   (b) What do they suggest about trade?

   (c) Why was copper probably imported?

3. Suppose a river supplying water to a large group of settlements gradually dries up.

   (a) How might this affect agriculture?

   (b) How might it affect cities?

   (c) Relate your answer to the decline of the Harappan cities.

Section J – Map / Activity-Based Questions

1. On an outline map of the Indian Subcontinent, locate and label:
   • Harappa
   • Mohenjo-daro
   • Rakhigarhi
   • Kalibangan
   • Dholavira
   • Lothal
2. Prepare a simple chart showing the main features of Harappan civilisation.
3. Draw a labelled diagram of a planned Harappan city showing streets, houses, drains and water sources.
4. Make a flow chart showing: Village → Town → City → Urban Civilisation.
5. Collect pictures of any five Harappan objects and write one sentence about each.

Section K – Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)

1. Why do you think a large civilisation needed planned cities instead of randomly built houses?
2. Why would the Harappans need both reservoirs and drainage systems?
3. Why might trade have encouraged the growth of Harappan cities?
4. If agriculture declined because of reduced rainfall, how could this affect people living in cities?
5. Why is archaeological evidence important for understanding a civilisation whose writing system is still not understood?